HRM Essay代寫：Content and Process Theories of Work Motivation

HRM Essay代寫-工作動機的內容與過程理論。本文是一篇HRM 留學Essay寫作范文，主要內容是講述工作動機理論可以大致分為內容理論和過程理論。內容理論關注的是確定人們的需求，以及如何優先考慮需求。他們關注的是激勵人們實現需求的激勵類型。馬斯洛層次理論、弗雷德里克·赫茨伯格的雙因素理論和阿爾德弗的ERG需求理論都屬于這一類。盡管這樣的內容方法具有邏輯性，易于理解，并且可以在實踐中容易地翻譯，但研究證據指出了局限性。這些模型的理論基礎和可預測性幾乎沒有研究支持。簡單的折衷犧牲了對工作動機復雜性的真正理解。然而，從積極的方面來看，內容模型強調了重要的內容因素，這些因素在很大程度上被人類關系學家所忽視。此外，Alderfer的ERG需求理論允許更大的靈活性，Herzberg的雙因素理論可以作為工作滿意度的解釋和工作設計的出發點。下面提供HRM 留學Essay寫作范文供參考。

The work motivation theories can be broadly classified as content theories and process theories. The content theories are concerned with identifying the needs that people have and how needs are prioritized. They are concerned with types of incentives that drive people to attain need fulfillment. The Maslow hierarchy theory, Fredrick Herzberg's two factor theory and Alderfer's ERG needs theory fall in this category. Although such a content approach has logic, is easy to understand, and can be readily translated in practice, the research evidence points out limitations. There is very little research support for these models' theoretical basic and predictability. The trade off for simplicity sacrifices true understanding of the complexity of work motivation. On the positive side, however, the content models have given emphasis to important content factors that were largely ignored by human relationists. In addition the Alderfer's ERG needs theory allows more flexibility and Herzberg's two-factor theory is useful as an explanation for job satisfaction and as a point of departure for job design.
The process theories are concerned with the cognitive antecedents that go into motivation and with the way they are related to one another. The theories given by Vroom, Porter and Lawler, equity theory and attribution theory fall in this category. These theories provide a much sounder explanation of work motivations. The expectancy model of Vroom and the extensions and the refinements provided by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive variables and how they relate to one another in the process of work motivation. The Porter Lawler model also gives specific attention to the important relationship between performance and satisfaction. A growing research literature is somewhat supportive of these expectancy models, but conceptual and methodological problems remain. Unlike the content models, these expectancy models are relatively complex and difficult to translate into actual practice. They have also failed to meet the goals of prediction and control
過程理論關注的是進入動機的認知先行因素，以及它們相互關聯的方式。Vroom、Porter和Lawler給出的理論、公平理論和歸因理論都屬于這一類。這些理論為工作動機提供了更為合理的解釋。Vroom的期望模型以及Porter和Lawler提供的擴展和改進有助于解釋重要的認知變量以及它們在工作動機過程中如何相互關聯。波特-勞勒模型還特別關注績效與滿意度之間的重要關系。越來越多的研究文獻在某種程度上支持這些預期模型，但概念和方法問題仍然存在。與內容模型不同，這些預期模型相對復雜，難以轉化為實際實踐。他們也未能達到預測和控制的目標
Motivation Theory 1 - Adam's Equity Theory of Work Motivation 動機理論1-亞當的工作動機公平理論
The theory explains that a major input into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of equity or inequity that people perceive in work situations. Adam depicts a specific process of how this motivation occurs.
該理論解釋說，工作績效和滿意度的主要輸入是人們在工作環境中感受到的公平或不公平程度。亞當描述了這種動機發生的具體過程。
Inequality occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his or her outcomes to inputs and the ratio of a relevant other's outcomes to inputs are unequal.
當一個人意識到他或她的結果與投入的比率以及相關的其他人的結果與投入之間的比率不相等時，就會出現不平等。
Our Outcomes < Other's Outcomes = Inequity (under-rewarded) 我們的結果<他人的結果=不公平（回報不足）
Our Inputs Other's Inputs 我們的投入 其他的投入
Our Outcomes = Other's Outcomes = Equity 我們的結果=其他人的結果=公平
Our Inputs Other's Inputs 我們的投入 其他的投入
Our Outcomes > Other's Outcomes = Inequity (over-rewarded) 我們的結果>其他人的結果=不公平（過度獎勵）
Our Inputs Other's Inputs 我們的投入 其他的投入
Both the inputs and the outputs of the person and the other are based upon the person's perceptions, which are affected by age, sex, education, social status, organizational position, qualifications, and how hard the person works, etc. Outcomes consist primarily of rewards such as pay, status, promotion, and intrinsic interest in the job. Equity sensitivity is the ratio based upon the person's perception of what the person is giving (inputs) and receiving (outcomes) versus the ratio of what the relevant is giving and receiving. This cognition may or may not be the same as someone else's observation of the ratios or the same as the actual situation.
個人和其他人的投入和產出都基于個人的認知，這些認知受年齡、性別、教育程度、社會地位、組織地位、資歷以及工作努力程度等因素的影響。公平敏感性是基于個人對其給予（投入）和接受（結果）的感知與相關給予和接受的比率的比率。這種認知可能與他人對比率的觀察相同，也可能與實際情況不同。       
If the person's perceived ratio is not equal to the other's, he or she will strive to restore the ratio to equity. This striving to restore equity is used as the explanation of work motivation. The strength of this motivation is in direct proportion to the perceived inequity that exists.
如果一個人的感知比率與另一個人的不相等，他或她將努力恢復公平比率。這種努力恢復公平的做法被用來解釋工作動機。這種動機的強度與存在的不公平現象成正比。
Research suggests that individuals engage in illegal behaviors to maintain equity in relationships, either with their employing organization or with other people (Greenberg, 1990).
研究表明，個人從事非法行為以維護關系中的公平，無論是與雇傭組織還是與其他人。       
The theory was later expanded with the concept of "Organizational Justice". Organizational justice reflects the extend to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work. It identified three different components of justice: distributive (The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed), procedural (The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions) and interactional (The perceived fairness of the decision maker's behavior in the process of decision-making). (Copanzano, Rupp, Mohler and Schminke, 2001).
該理論后來被擴展為“組織正義”的概念。組織公正反映了人們認為自己在工作中受到公平對待的程度。它確定了正義的三個不同組成部分：分配性（對資源和獎勵如何分配的感知公平）、程序性（對用于分配決策的過程和程序的感知公平性）和互動性（對決策過程中決策者行為的感知公平度）。。
Critiques:評論
Equity theory is descriptive and it reflects much of our everyday experience. As a theory however equity is only partial in analysis and as a predictor. There are many societal and institutional variables (inequalities) that we all navigate. The theory ignores people's natural resilience, their competitiveness, selflessness and selfishness, their ethical dilemmas in decision-making and their passions.
公平理論是描述性的，它反映了我們的日常經驗。然而，作為一種理論，公平在分析和預測中只是部分的。我們都面臨著許多社會和制度變量（不平等）。這一理論忽視了人們的自然韌性、競爭力、無私和自私、決策中的道德困境和激情。       
It does not adequately explain interactions in close relationships such as marriage or "emotional labor" - where we may provide care to others at a burdensome cost of declining personal well-being and self-denial. Norms of equity and reciprocity are often discounted in close and romantic friendships or where there are deep family bonds.
它不能充分解釋婚姻或“情感勞動”等親密關系中的相互作用——在這種關系中，我們可能會以個人幸福感下降和自我否定為代價向他人提供照顧。在親密和浪漫的友誼中，或者在有深厚的家庭紐帶的地方，公平和互惠的標準常常被打折。
In the social exchanges of business, causal, or stranger relationships, there may be more of a dominant assumption that inputs are offered with the expectation of a like response. There is more of a formal contract of tangible and intangible reward. A promise unfulfilled, without proper reciprocity incurs a debt of honor. A promise is broken. In our community, obligations of reciprocal response operate. We are expected to apply the Golden Rule and to help where we can - an act ably demonstrated by "the Parable of the Good Samaritan".
在商業、因果關系或陌生人關系的社會交往中，可能有更多的主導假設，即提供投入時期望得到類似的回應。更多的是有形和無形報酬的正式合同。如果沒有適當的互惠，承諾得不到履行，就會招致榮譽債務。諾言被打破了。在我們的社區中，相互回應的義務起作用。我們被期望應用黃金法則，并盡我們所能提供幫助——這一行為被“好心人的寓言”巧妙地證明了。
Social exchange theory assumes rational, calculated action involving an expected pay-off. We do not always act rationally. Many will not be as selfish as rational action may suggest. Indeed our reward may be the inner glow of respecting oneself and living to one's own values. Such altruism, albeit self-referential, does not sit easily under the assumptions of the "rational, economic-person" model.
社會交換理論假定理性的、經過計算的行動涉及預期的回報。我們并不總是理性行事。許多人不會像理性行動所暗示的那樣自私。事實上，我們的回報可能是尊重自己并按照自己的價值觀生活的內在光芒。這種利他主義，盡管是自我參照的，但在“理性、經濟人”模型的假設下并不容易。
Implications 意義
It is necessary to pay attention to what employees' perceive to be fair and equitable. For example: In my company, one of my colleagues was assigned to a project that required him to work during non business hours frequently. He worked three days at the office and two days at home in a week for a month and half. This caused others to start working from home during business hours.
有必要關注員工對公平和公正的看法。例如：在我的公司，我的一位同事被分配到一個項目，要求他經常在非工作時間工作。他每周在辦公室工作三天，在家工作兩天，持續了一個半月。這導致其他人在工作時間開始在家工作。
Allow employees to have a "voice" and an opportunity to appeal. Organizational changes, promoting cooperation, etc. can come easier with equitable outcomes.
讓員工有“發言權”和上訴機會。組織變革、促進合作等可以更容易地實現公平的結果。
Management's failure to achieve equity could be costly for the organization. For example: One of my technically team members was not very competent. He took double the time to complete any give work when compared to the others. Management failed to take any action; instead the others were given more work. Eventually, even the competent workers took it easy to restore equity causing project delays.
管理層未能實現公平對組織來說可能是代價高昂的。例如：我的一個技術團隊成員不是很能干。與其他人相比，他花了兩倍的時間完成任何贈與工作。管理層未能采取任何行動；相反，其他人得到了更多的工作。最終，即使是有能力的工人也很容易恢復公平，導致項目延誤。
Motivation Theory 2 - Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation:動機理論2-Vroom的動機期望理論
Expectancy theory provides a framework for analyzing work motivation, which is eminently practical. It provides a checklist of factors to be considered in any managerial situation and it points to the links between the relevant factors and the direction, which these factors tend to follow in their interrelationships. (Tony J. Watson, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986).
期望理論為分析工作動機提供了一個框架，非常實用。它提供了在任何管理情況下需要考慮的因素清單，并指出了相關因素與方向之間的聯系，這些因素在相互關系中往往遵循這些方向。
Expectancy theory holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. It can be used to predict motivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. (Kreitner R. & Kinicki A., Mcgraw Hill, 7th Edition). Vroom gave the following equation of Motivation:
預期理論認為，人們被激勵以產生預期結果的期望組合的方式行事。它可以用來預測任何情況下的動機和行為，在這種情況下，必須在兩個或多個備選方案之間做出選擇。Vroom給出了以下動機方程式：
Motivation (M) = Valence (V) x Expectancy (E) 動機（M）=價值（V）x期望（E）
Valence stands for the preference of an individual for a particular outcome. Thus, when an individual desires a particular outcome the value of V is positive. On the other hand when the individual does not desire a certain outcome, the value of V is negative.
Valence代表個人對特定結果的偏好。因此，當個人期望特定結果時，V值為正。另一方面，當個人不希望某個結果時，V值為負值。
The value of expectancy ranges between zero and one. When a certain event will definitely not occur the value of E is zero. On the other hand when the event is sure to occur the value of E is one.
期望值介于0和1之間。當某個事件肯定不會發生時，E的值為零。另一方面，當事件確定發生時，E的值為1。
Since its original conception, the expectancy theory model has been refined and extended many times. The better know of all is the Porter-Lawler model. Although conventional wisdom argues that satisfaction leads to performance, Porter and Lawler argued the reverse. If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction. In addition to the features included in the original expectancy model, the Porter-Lawler model includes abilities, traits, and role perceptions.
自最初的概念以來，期望理論模型已被多次改進和擴展。最為人熟知的是波特-勞勒模型。盡管傳統的觀點認為滿意會帶來績效，但波特和勞勒的觀點恰恰相反。如果獎勵足夠，高水平的表現可能會帶來滿意。除了原始預期模型中包含的特征外，波特-勞勒模型還包括能力、特質和角色感知。
Critiques:評論
Vroom's theory does not directly contribute to the techniques of motivating people. It is of value in understanding organizational behavior. It clarifies the relation between individuals and the organizational goals. The model is designed to help management understand and analyze employee motivation and identify some to the relevant variables. However, the theory falls short of providing specific solutions to the motivational problems.
The theory also does not take into account the individual differences based on individual perceptions nor does it assume that most people have the same hierarchy of needs. It treats as a variable to be investigated just what it is that particular employees are seeking in their work. Thus the theory indicates only the conceptional determinants of motivation and how they are related.
Vroom的理論對激勵人們的技術沒有直接貢獻。它對理解組織行為有價值。它闡明了個人與組織目標之間的關系。該模型旨在幫助管理層理解和分析員工動機，并識別一些相關變量。然而，該理論沒有為動機問題提供具體的解決方案。             
該理論也沒有考慮到基于個人認知的個人差異，也沒有假設大多數人有相同的需求層次。它將特定員工在工作中尋求的東西視為一個變量進行調查。因此，該理論只指出了動機的概念決定因素以及它們之間的關系。
Research studies have confirmed that the association of both kinds of expectancies and valences with effort and performance. The motivated behavior of people arises from their valuing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, and that performance will result in desired rewards.
The expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S. better than elsewhere and therefore may not be suitable for other regions.
研究證實，兩種期望和效價與努力和表現的關聯。人們的積極行為源于他們對預期回報的重視，相信努力會帶來績效，而績效會帶來期望的回報。             
預期理論比其他地方更好地解釋了美國的動機，因此可能不適用于其他地區。
Implications 意義
This theory can be used by the managers to: 管理者可以利用這一理論
Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.確定每個員工想要的主要結果。
Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.確定實現組織目標所需的績效水平和類型。
Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.確保達到所需的性能水平。
Link desired outcomes and desired performance.將期望的結果與期望的績效聯系起來。
Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.分析預期沖突的情況。
Make sure the rewards are large enough.確保獎勵足夠大。
Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.確保整個系統對每個人都公平。
Motivation Theory 3 - Maslow's Theory of Hierarchy of Need:動機理論3-馬斯洛的需求層次理論
Maslow believed that within every individual, there exists a hierarchy of five needs and that each level of need must be satisfied before an individual pursues the next higher level of need (Maslow, 1943). As an individual progresses through the various levels of needs, the proceeding needs loose their motivational value.
馬斯洛認為，在每一個個體中，都存在著五種需求的層次結構，在個體追求下一個更高層次的需求之前，每個層次的需求都必須得到滿足（馬斯洛，1943）。當一個人在不同層次的需求中前進時，過程需要失去他們的激勵價值。
The basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance can be summarized and shown as below: 馬斯洛按重要性升序排列的人類基本需求可以概括如
The desire to become what one is capable of becoming.渴望成為一個人能夠成為的人。
These are the needs to be held in esteem both by oneself and by others.這些都是自己和他人都需要尊重的。
These are the needs to belong and to be accepted by various groups.這些都是屬于不同群體并被不同群體接受的需要。
These are the needs to be free of physical danger. The safety needs look to the future.這些都是沒有身體危險的需要。安全需要著眼于未來。
These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such as food, water, warmth, shelter, and sleep.這些是維持人類生命本身的基本需求，如食物、水、溫暖、住所和睡眠。
Maslow in his later work (Maslow, 1954) said: 馬斯洛在他后來的作品中說：
Gratification of the self-actualization need causes an increase in its importance rather than a decrease.自我實現需求的滿足導致其重要性的增加而不是減少。
Long deprivation of a given need, results in fixation for that need.長期剝奪某一特定需求會導致對該需求的固執。
Higher needs may emerge not after gratification, but rather by long deprivation, renunciation or suppression of lower needs.更高的需求可能不是在滿足之后出現的，而是在長期的剝奪、放棄或壓制更低的需求之后出現的。
Human behavior is multi-determined and multi-motivated.人類的行為是多決定、多動機的。
Critiques:評論
Part of the appeal of Maslow's theory is that it provides both a theory of human motives by classifying basic human needs in a hierarchy and the theory of human motivation that relates these needs to general behavior. Maslow's major contribution lies in the hierarchical concept. He was the first to recognize that a need once satisfied is a spent force and ceases to be a motivator.
馬斯洛理論的一部分吸引力在于，它通過將人類的基本需求按等級分類，提供了人類動機理論，也提供了將這些需求與一般行為聯系起來的人類動機理論。馬斯洛的主要貢獻在于等級觀念。他是第一個認識到需求一旦得到滿足就是一種消耗的力量，不再是一種動力的人。       
Maslow's need hierarchy presents a paradox in as much as while the theory is widely accepted, there is a little research evidence available to support the theory.
馬斯洛的需求層次提出了一個悖論，盡管該理論被廣泛接受，但有少量研究證據支持該理論。
It is said that beyond structuring needs in a certain fashion Maslow does not give concrete guidance to the managers as to how they should motivate their employees.
據說，除了以某種方式構建需求之外，馬斯洛并沒有就如何激勵員工向管理者提供具體指導。
Implications:意義
The need hierarchy as postulated by Maslow does not appear in practice. It is likely that over fulfillment of anyone's particular need may result in fixation for the need. In that case even when a particular need is satisfied a person may still engage in the fulfillment of the same need. Furthermore, in a normal human being, all the needs are not always satisfied entirely. There remains an unsatisfied corner of every need in spite of which the person seeks fulfillment of the higher need.
馬斯洛假設的需求層次在實踐中并未出現。很可能，過度滿足任何人的特定需求都會導致對需求的固執。在這種情況下，即使某一特定需求得到滿足，一個人仍可能參與滿足同樣的需求。此外，在一個正常的人身上，所有的需求并不總是完全得到滿足。盡管人們尋求滿足更高的需求，但每個需求都有一個未被滿足的角落。
A person may move on to the next need in spite of the lower need being unfulfilled or being partly fulfilled.
一個人可以繼續下一個需求，盡管較低的需求沒有得到滿足或部分得到滿足。
Conclusion 結論
No single motivation theory can suffice in today's workplace. Each motivational theory has its pros and cons. A theory may get the highest performance from an employee but may not from another employee.
在當今的工作場所，沒有一種激勵理論是足夠的。每種動機理論都有其利弊。一種理論可能會從一名員工那里得到最高的績效，但可能不會從另一名員工那兒得到。
The organization's workplace has changed dramatically in the past decade. Companies are both downsizing and expanding (often at the same time, in different divisions or levels of the hierarchy). Work is being out-sourced to various regions and countries. The workforce is characterized by increased diversity with highly divergent needs and demands. Information technology has frequently changed both the manner and location of work activities. New organizational forms (such as e-commerce) are now common. Teams are redefining the notion of hierarchy, as well as traditional power distributions. The use of contingent workers is on the rise and globalization and the challenges of managing across borders are now the norm. These changes have had a profound influence on how companies attempt to attract, retain, and motivate their employees.
在過去十年中，該組織的工作場所發生了巨大變化。公司正在縮小規模和擴大規模（通常同時在不同的部門或層級中）。工作正在外包給各個地區和國家。勞動力的特點是多樣性增加，需求和要求高度不同。信息技術經常改變工作活動的方式和地點。新的組織形式（如電子商務）現在很普遍。團隊正在重新定義層級的概念，以及傳統的權力分配。臨時工的使用正在增加，全球化和跨國管理的挑戰已成為常態。這些變化對公司如何吸引、留住和激勵員工產生了深遠的影響。
Yet we lack new models capable of guiding managers in this new era of work. As management scholar Peter Cappelli notes, "Most observers of the corporate world believe that the traditional relationship between employer and employee is gone, but there is little understanding of why it ended and even less about what is replacing that relationship" (Cappelli, 1999). I believe that the existing work motivation and job performance theories are inadequate to cater to the present era of such diverse workforce. New theories of motivation are required to commensurate with this new era.
然而，在這個新的工作時代，我們缺乏能夠指導管理者的新模式。正如管理學者彼得·卡佩利所指出的那樣，“企業界的大多數觀察家都認為，雇主和雇員之間的傳統關系已經消失，但人們對這種關系的結束原因知之甚少，更不知道是什么在取代這種關系”。essay作者認為，現有的工作動機和工作績效理論不足以適應當今多元化勞動力的時代。需要新的動機理論來適應這個新時代。本站提供各國各專業留學生Essay代寫或指導服務，如有需要可咨詢本平臺。